Perspectives for immunotherapy in endocrine cancer

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   Figure 1

   Scheme of tumor microenvironment containing tumor cells, tumor vessels, pericyte support fibroblast and cells of innate and adaptive immune system. HIF-1α, hypoxia-inducible factors; TAMs, tumor-associated macrophages; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β.
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   Figure 2

   T-cell activation in a lymph node after antigen presentation by APC via TCR/MHCII complex and co-stimulatory signal B7. Right: CTLA-4 binding to B7 together with TCR complex results in T-cell inactivation. Left: Anti-CTLA-4 antibodies block the interaction of CTLA-4 and B7 and thereby confer T-cell activation. MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor.
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   Figure 3

   Interaction of T cells with tumor cells within the tumor microenvironment. Right: Tumor cells expressing PD-L1/2 are able to inactivate T cells via PD-1 pathway. Left: Tumor cells lose this ability when PD-1 and/or PD-L1/2 are blocked by antibodies and an appropriate T-cell response occurs resulting in killing of tumor cells. MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor.

• © 2016 Society for Endocrinology